A major advance in transport physiology was H. H. Ussing's development of the voltage-clamp method, and later the Koefoed-Johnsen-Ussing model for Na+ transport. In the same decade, J. C. Skou identified the Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase, which maintains the Na+ and K+ gradients that drive most epithelial transport processes. With this foundation, Danish scientists have pursued the mechanism of ion transport and the resulting solute-linked water flow. Recent contributions have been on isosmotic transport, suggesting solute recycling, and KCl-water cotransport in the basolateral epithelial cell membrane. Efficient small intestinal nutrient absorption is dependent on coupling to the Na+ gradient. Cotransport of Na+ and glucose is quantitatively the most important absorptive mechanism in the small intestine, as illustrated by the success of oral rehydration solutions in diarrhoea. The majority of amino acids are likewise transported by Na+ dependent carriers, but recent experiments have identified a concomitant Cl- dependency for some. Regulation of intestinal secretion, both under normal digestive processes, and in response to enterotoxins, has turned out to be very complex. It involves local and central neuronal regulation through an array of neurotransmitters and local actions of gastrointestinal hormones. Major effectors are the submucosal neurons and the main transmitters serotonin, vasoactive intestinal peptide, acetylcholine, substance P, and neurotensin. Development of antisecretagogues is impeded by the existence of several receptor subtypes and significant species differences. The Na+ and water-conserving properties of the large intestine have been shown to be regulated by adrenocortical hormones, with aldosterone as a potent stimulator of colonic Na+ absorption. A major colonic function is the symbiosis with the anaerobic bacterial population. The fermentation of carbohydrate to short-chain fatty acids, which can be absorbed, supplements small intestinal digestive function.